How Women Rank in Traditional Female Jobs

​Stereotypes hold true when it comes to the jobs that most women work. Asked to name the traditional careers typically pursued by women, most of us could easily come up with the jobs that employ the most women. Secretaries, nurses, and teachers top the list. Together, these three occupations provide jobs for around 12 percent of all working women. Women in the Workforce Working women are a sizable chunk of the population. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, 70 million women age 16 and over were employed in 2016 in both full- and part-time jobs. Thats nearly 60 percent of the female population. In management, women are making great strides, accounting for nearly 40 percent of managers in the labor force. And yet, in 2014 it was reported that 4.8 percent of all women made an hourly rate at or below the federal minimum wage. Thats almost 1.9 million women. According to the 2015 Women in the Labor Force: A Databook, 5.3 percent of women who are employed work more than one job and 5.3 percent were self-employed. Compare this to 4.5 percent of men with multiple jobs and 7.4 percent who are self-employed. Traditional Occupations of Working Women Looking at the  top ten occupations that employ the most women, together they provide jobs for around 28% of the female workforce.   The following table shows what those occupations are according to a 2008 report and with the updated 2016 statistics for comparison. One thing you might find surprising is the wage gap found in these traditionally female jobs. The average weekly salary earned by women continues to fall behind that of their male colleagues. Occupation 2016 Total Women Employed 2016 % Women Workers 2008 % Women Workers 2016 Average Weekly Salary Secretaries Administrative Assistants 2,595,000 94.6% 96.1% $708(men earn $831) Registered Nurses 2,791,000 90.0% 91.7% $1,143(men earn $1261) Teachers - Elementary Middle School 2,231,000 78.5% 81.2% $981(men earn $1126) Cashiers 2,386,000 73.2% 75.5% $403(men earn $475) Retail Salespersons 1,603,000 48.4% 52.2% $514(men earn $730) Nursing, Psychatric, Home Health Aides 1,813,000 88.1% 88.7% $498(men earn $534) First-line supervisors/managers of retail sales workers 1,447,000 44.1% 43.4% $630(men earn $857) Wait Staff ( waitresses) 1,459,000 70.0% 73.2% $441(men earn $504) Receptionists Information Clerks 1,199,000 90.1% 93.6% $581(men earn$600) Bookkeeping, Accounting Auditing Clerks 1,006,000 88.5% 91.4% $716(men earn $790) What Does the Future Hold? The change in the demographics of Americas labor force is changing slowly, but according to the U.S. Department of Labor, its significant. It is projected that we will see a slowdown in growth and at the same time women will continue to make gains.   In the 2002 report A Century of Change: The U.S. Labor Force, 1950-2050,  the Department of Labor notes that women have increased their numbers at an extremely rapid pace in the past 50 years. It anticipates that growth to slow down from the 2.6 percent seen from 1950 to 2000 to 0.7 percent from 2000 to 2050. While that report projects women making up 48 percent of the workforce in 2050, in 2016 were sitting at 46.9 percent. If women continue to progress at even the projected 0.7 percent rate, we will have topped that 48 percent by 2020, 30 years earlier than projected just 16 years prior. The future for working women looks bright and the prospects reach far beyond the traditional jobs for women. Source Employed persons by detailed occupation, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity. 2016. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.Median weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers by detailed occupation and sex. 2016.  Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.20 Leading Occupations of Employed Women: 2008 Annual Averages. 2009. Womens Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor.

The Effects Of High Unemployment On Namibia - 1450 Words

Causes of high unemployment in Namibia The details below analyze the unemployment rate in Namibia and it reveals that jobless growth appears to be norm in the country with unemployment rate increasing even in the time of high economic growth as measured by GDP (gross domestic product). This shows that unemployment in Namibia does not react to cyclical changes in the level of economic activities. There are some key factors that contribute to high unemployment rate in Namibia. Population Growth Changing Demographics Figure 3 Source: Own compilation based on data obtained from the National Bureau of statistics (Namibia statistics agency) and World Bank (2015). (Strict unemployment) Figure 3 shows that population has been increasing†¦show more content†¦Figure 4 above shows that youth unemployment has been high in Namibia since 1991 that records the level of youth unemployment rate of 35.2% from 19% of total unemployment. Youth unemployment rate reported all time low in 1994 with 32% from 19.4% of total unemployment and all time high in 2008 with total youth unemployment rate of 59.9% from 37.6% of total unemployment the cause of this high rate in 2008 was caused by the global economic crises and the closing down of mining operations and some manufacturing industry in the country. The fast growing of total youth population in Namibia is due the improvement of health conditions, slow down of mortality rate and fertility rate. Increases in Female Labor Force Participation Over the previous years, Namibia experienced an increase in the labor force participation of women. Especially between 1997 to 2008 women in labor forces participation increases with 10.7%, compared to men’s labor forces participation which increases with 6.5% in the same period, which is 4.2% less than women labor force participation growth as shown in figure 5. This development reflects a change in society and is caused by factors such as, women high level of education attainment, women independence, affirmative action laws, just to mention few. This shows that as more and more women enter the labor market, and finding no job opportunities many of them enters the mass of unemployed Namibians. Figure 5 Source:

Pathophysiology Free Essays

The causes or pathogenesis are usually multiracial. Several risk factors can predispose to infection or initiate inflammation and subsequently the infectious process. Intact canal skin and cerement production have a protective effect against infections. We will write a custom essay sample on Pathophysiology or any similar topic only for you Order Now This is secondary to the fact that cerement produces a pH in the ear canal that is slightly acidic. On the other hand, breakdown of skin integrity, insufficient cerement production, or blockage of the ear canal with cerement (which promotes water retention) can predispose to Infection. Skin Integrity can be Injured by direct aroma, heat, and moisture or persistent water In the ear canal. Such damage Is thought to be necessary for initiation of the inflammatory process. Subsequently, edema may result, followed by bacterial inoculation and overgrowth. In Otis External, the infection is caused by bacteria or fungi. Scratching, inserting objects into the ear canal, or moisture (from swimming, for example can make the ear canal vulnerable to Infection. The external auditory canal is a cylinder measuring approximately 2. 5 CM in length and 7. 0 to 9. 0 mm in width, extending from the conchs’ cartilage of the auricle to the humanity membrane . It Is divided Into a lateral (outer) cartilaginous portion that occupies approximately one-third of the canal and a medial (Inner) bony portion that occupies the remaining two-thirds. Their junction is termed the isthmus and is the narrowest region of the ear canal. The outer cartilaginous portion is lined by thicker skin with numerous addenda structures including cerement glands, sebaceous glands, and hair follicles. The inner bony portion of the canal contains thin skin without subcutaneous tissue. The dermis In this area Is In direct contact with the underlying peritoneum. Thus, minimal Inflammation or Instrumentation of the bony canal causes significant pain and/or Injury. The Inferior tympanis recess Is a small depression In the inferior medial aspect of the ear canal, adjacent to the tympanis membrane. Debris can collect in this area and cause or perpetuate infection. The lining of the ear canal is a exaggerating exogamous epithelium that undergoes continual sloughing. Epithelial migration is a naturally occurring cleaning process for the ear canal that allows egress of keratin debris and cerement. Epithelial migration begins in the center of the tympanis membrane and continues out to the medial, then lateral aspects of the ear canal. The ear canal is bound superiorly by the middle cranial Foss, interiorly by the temporariness’s Joint and paranoid region, medially by the tympanis membrane, posterior by the mastoid cavity, and inferiorly by the skull base and soft tissues of the neck. These boundaries have particular importance when considering the potential complications of external Otis. The fissures of Sanatoria are a series of embryological fissures In the anterior aspect of the fissures also allow potential spread of ear canal disease to the paranoid region, temporariness’s Joint, and soft tissue of the upper neck. How to cite Pathophysiology, Papers

Enemy Of The People Essay Example For Students

Enemy Of The People Essay How Home-Schooling Really Got StartedPeople have often been known to find comfort in numbers and to therefore enter into social contracts with others living around them. People feel safer in groups and so they choose to give up certain rights and privileges for protection from their peers. This inevitably leads to domination of man over man. People choose leaders to make their decisions for them, or they do as the majority says. It is very rare for people to make rational decisions and carry to them to their full potential once they have entered into a social contract. The desire to follow the crowd which is created by this social setting is deplorable and is therefore the main object of critism in Henrick Ibsen’s play An Enemy of the People. The play is set in a small town in Norway that has just begun to develop the wings it needed to expand and become prosperous. This is in the most part due to The Baths; a business Dr. Stockmann and his brother Peter began, to cure the sick through spa treatments and rest. At the beginning, it seems as though The Baths had just begun to take off. The play is set in the Stockmanns kitchen where Mr. Billings, a close friend and member of the Peoples Herald, is having dinner. He is then joined by Hovstad, also a member of the Peoples Herald, and in the absence of Dr. Stockmann they discuss the future of The Baths. The Mayor, who is also Thomas brother, stops in unexpectedly to have a word regarding The Baths. Since Dr. Stockmann has not yet arrived home from his walk with his sons; Billings, Hovstad, and the mayor begin to discuss future events. Hovstad explains to the mayor that he can see nothing but good in the future for the town, and that Dr. Stockmann had been holding an article he had written that was sure to spark interest in his recent discovery. At this point it is obvious that the relationship between Dr. Stockmann and his brother Peter is not the strongest. They seem to struggle on seeing eye-to-eye on several issues. Before Dr. Stockmann arrives home, his wife Katherine is comforting Peter, since he has taken great offense to Hovstads comment about The Baths being Thomas discovery. Dr. Stockmann arrives and is pleasantly surprised to see another dinner guest, Captain Horster, on his way in. His friends and brother have been awaiting him. A string of many arguments between the Stockmann brothers begins when Peter disagrees with the way Dr. Stockmann lives his life, and more importantly the steps being taken to promote The Baths, such as the secret article. After the Mayor exits, the dinner party at the Stockmanns continues. Thomas becomes very anxious about the mail and an awaited letter. His daughter Petra arrives with the letter, and explains that the postman handed it to her on her way out that morning. Dr. Stockmann is overjoyed to see its arrival, and excites his guests with the potential for big news. He takes the letter into his study to read privately. Meanwhile Petra, who is a teacher, gives her opinion regarding the problem with the school system, and that if she had the money she would start her own school where children would learn what was really important. Captain Horster shows his support in the new school, and offers Petra his fathers house to accommodate. Petras response shows a bit of foreshadowing as she politely thanks the Captain, but explains that nothing will ever come of it. Dr. Stockmann comes out of his room waving the letter, and proclaiming that the news will definitely have tongues wagging around town. All of the guests anxiously sit up to hear this long awaited news. Dr. Stockmann explains that his recent observation of patients getting sick with typhoid and gastric fevers made him curious, so he took samples of the water and sent them out to be tested. He held the results in his hand; results that proved the water to be contaminated and poisoned. The doctor had also discovered that the source of contamination came from Molledal, an industry owned and operated by his father-in-law. The contaminated water was seeping into The Baths water pipes

Neutrality and Racism free essay sample

As children were taught to never fight back when a classmate steals a beloved smack time treat or retaliate when they take our cubby. And as we continue to grow older, were constantly reminded to turn the other cheek when someone is spiteful towards us- after all, forgiveness and love is considered to be of utmost importance according to the word of God. However, while remaining neutral to situations may avoid conflict and confrontation, it also leaves us undecided and apathetic towards any remote yearn for change. By not demanding change, we are allowing unacceptable behavior to continue. With historical events such as the civil rights movement and current events such as bullying, neutrality sets a limit on human capability for improvement and understanding. Change is spearheaded by a shift in mindset rather than staying neutral to the norm. And in order to change someones mindset, we must be wholly determined ourselves. We will write a custom essay sample on Neutrality and Racism or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page From the famous words of Martin Luther Kings, I have a dream speech, we can feel his burning desire to inspire the American people. Although King refused to remain neutral to the treatment towards people of color, he always advocated nonviolent protests. Through pleas of judging someone on their character rather than their skin tone, he urged America to end lynching, grant everyone full, equal, and promised rights, and grant well deserved tolerance of race. If King and other activists such as Malcolm X and Rosa Parks chose to remain neutral to their maltreatment, the United States very well may have been stuck in the same 1950s mentality for years to come. These African American leading figures prove the point being made- identifying and finding solutions are necessary to move forward. Staying neutral, in essence, means we are condoning the inappropriate behavior or actions being done. Currently in the 21st century, technology is becoming a vital role in our everyday lives. However, with new ways of technology and outbursts of social media, a new trend has been created- cyber bullying. Granted the security of a monitor and the comfort of an office chair, millions of online users are using the internet as an outlet to bully others. When we are online and see this type of behavior, often found in forms of curse words or appearance jokes, we are often following the bystander effect and staying neutral to these acts of hatred. By being a bystander, we are not taking the initiative to stop this bullying, therefor not instilling a need for change. Thankfully, organizations such as stopit and endbullying have taken it upon themselves to find solutions to this ongoing and severe problem. Bullying online leads to thousands of suicides, specifically in teenagers. Staying neutral to this situation may mean one life wasted; and by trying to end bullying may mean hundred of lives saved. Looking from history to modern day issues, remaining neutral is almost never an effective route. By remaining neutral we limit our capability to really understand and accept others. Awareness and being proactive is key to an improved world. Neutrality and Racism free essay sample As children were taught to never fight back when a classmate steals a beloved smack time treat or retaliate when they take our cubby. And as we continue to grow older, were constantly reminded to turn the other cheek when someone is spiteful towards us- after all, forgiveness and love is considered to be of utmost importance according to the word of God. However, while remaining neutral to situations may avoid conflict and confrontation, it also leaves us undecided and apathetic towards any remote yearn for change. By not demanding change, we are allowing unacceptable behavior to continue. With historical events such as the civil rights movement and current events such as bullying, neutrality sets a limit on human capability for improvement and understanding. Change is spearheaded by a shift in mindset rather than staying neutral to the norm. And in order to change someones mindset, we must be wholly determined ourselves. We will write a custom essay sample on Neutrality and Racism or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page From the famous words of Martin Luther Kings, I have a dream speech, we can feel his burning desire to inspire the American people. Although King refused to remain neutral to the treatment towards people of color, he always advocated nonviolent protests. Through pleas of judging someone on their character rather than their skin tone, he urged America to end lynching, grant everyone full, equal, and promised rights, and grant well deserved tolerance of race. If King and other activists such as Malcolm X and Rosa Parks chose to remain neutral to their maltreatment, the United States very well may have been stuck in the same 1950s mentality for years to come. These African American leading figures prove the point being made- identifying and finding solutions are necessary to move forward. Staying neutral, in essence, means we are condoning the inappropriate behavior or actions being done. Currently in the 21st century, technology is becoming a vital role in our everyday lives. However, with new ways of technology and outbursts of social media, a new trend has been created- cyber bullying. Granted the security of a monitor and the comfort of an office chair, millions of online users are using the internet as an outlet to bully others. When we are online and see this type of behavior, often found in forms of curse words or appearance jokes, we are often following the bystander effect and staying neutral to these acts of hatred. By being a bystander, we are not taking the initiative to stop this bullying, therefor not instilling a need for change. Thankfully, organizations such as stopit and endbullying have taken it upon themselves to find solutions to this ongoing and severe problem. Bullying online leads to thousands of suicides, specifically in teenagers. Staying neutral to this situation may mean one life wasted; and by trying to end bullying may mean hundred of lives saved. Looking from history to modern day issues, remaining neutral is almost never an effective route. By remaining neutral we limit our capability to really understand and accept others. Awareness and being proactive is key to an improved world.

FDRs new deal essays

FDRs new deal essays When President took office in March of 1932 he had an idea of a plan, which would have to develop over time, which was the New Deal for the American People. He believed that if this plan went through, it would solve the problem of the Great Depression and restore the American economy. President Roosevelts New Deal that took time to develop included programs that would help the unemployed get jobs, social security issues such as welfare, and housing and agricultural recovery. Roosevelt also included programs to help the banking system. President Roosevelts New Deal failed to restore the economy as Roosevelt had hoped it would, but in turn it helped the people that suffered the most from the Great Depression by giving the hope and confidence they needed. President Roosevelt was by far the most active president we have had, even though little progress was made. His first accomplishment when he took office was restoring the confidence people had lost in the banking system. He did not solve the problems of the banking system, but he did come up with the Emergency Banking Relief Act of 1933. This act gave power to the government to control some of the banking systems and also allowed them to re-open financially secure banks. The Glass-Stbagall Banking Reform Act, which forbade banks to invest customers money into the stock market. President Roosevelt also tried to better the economy by causing inflation. Inflation would cause an increase in prices and businesses would make more profit and the economy would boom. The new production caused an increase in the need of workers, thus causing the unemployment rate to decrease. One way the New Deal was able to give jobs to the jobless was via the Civilian Conservation Corps. This program gave jobs to civilians between the ages of eighteen and twenty-five; they were planting trees, building dams, and stopping the erosion of the soil. ...

Pushing hands Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Pushing hands - Essay Example Lee in this movie explores the element of cross – culture relationships and conflicts and issue related to it. This movie is a first of a kind where a father from a traditional background encounters a changing living atmosphere. This movie displays a wisdom and warmth of a traditional Chinese man in a family which has complete urban background. In this movie the character Alex is also stuck between his traditional grandfather, and his modern wife who is fussy. It is painful situation for the grandson and grandfather, as they share blood relation and have to keep up with each other’s expectations. In the end, the movie shows Mr. Chu regaining his hold on life and moves on independently. Plot of the Movie The plot of the movie is the life of an old and retired Chinese martial arts trainer, Mr. .Chu who moves to New York to join his grandson Alex. Alex is living with an American women Martha who is his wife and also a writer by profession. Martha is a neurotic and was suff ering from writer’s block which is condition which affects the writer’s mostly due to overwriting or lack of inspirational thoughts. As per (Nix)â€Å"As it so happens, Martha’s writer’s block started about the same time Mr. Chu moved in, and no one is more aware of this fact than she†. The moment when Mr. Chu joined the Alex’s family, his wife was in a disturbed condition and this makes the relationship of Mr. Chu and Martha bitter. As the movie â€Å"Pushing Hands† initiates, Mr. Chu is shown to be already in New York with his grandson and is uncomfortable and sharing a negative relationship with Martha. The film focuses much on this retired Chinese martial art teacher and his attempts to cope up with his new living atmosphere .In this he also attempts to teach Tai – Chi in a local school, where Alex is a student of Chinese Language. In the following part Mr.’ Chu encounters with a Chinese lady Mrs. Chen, and develops an attraction for her. However, due to Mr. Chu’s less aggressive nature this attraction towards Mrs. Chen s tends to falls out .Normally speaking, this movie tells all about the plight of an old Chinese immigrant in a foreign land and his attempts to fit in the new land of modernism. Background and Theme of the Movie The movie â€Å"Pushing Hands† is written by two writers namely; AngLee and James Schamas.Ang Lee is a Taiwanese man who made use of his Taiwanese heritage to create memorable movies which earned acclamation throughout the world. He has earned Masters from New York University on film, and got noticed in film arena with his classical movie like â€Å"The Wedding banquet†. This movie has earned him Academy award nomination and earned recognition as a director who crossed cultural and national barriers. James Shcamas is the co – writer of this movie â€Å"Pushing Hands† and also is an independent film producer and screen writer. During 19 90s, James Schamus have produced many interesting films which gained much attention and appraisal from film fraternity. He is known for taking risks to bring about stories with is of challenging and versatile nature. The theme of the movie â€Å"Pushing Hands† is culture clash which is prominently displayed between Mr. .Chu and his

Childhood obesity what are the parents challanges Research Proposal

Childhood obesity what are the parents challanges - Research Proposal Example Moreover, the body of the paper also provides information on the method of data collection, sample strategy and method of analysis of the proposed research. The conclusion summarizes the research findings. One of the major threats to the health of American children is childhood obesity. In accordance with the statistical data of 2003, the prevalence of obesity in children between the ages of 6 and 7 was estimated to be 11% of the reference population and with a BMI of less than 95th percentile. Moreover, 14% of the children were overweight with a BMI of between 85th and 95th percentile. The prevalence of obesity in children has shown an alarming rise since 2003. Despite the rise in the percentage of obese children, the management of childhood obesity is considered the sole responsibility of the individual children and their parents. On the other hand, the societal stigmatization of childhood obesity has further aggravated the problem by exerting a negative pressure on the parents. Furthermore, the powerful environmental inducements forcing the children to eat nutritionally unhealthy foods such as candies and burgers have posed an additional challenge for parents in preventing obesity. (M. B. Schwartz et al 2003). This paper utilizes a number of scholarly resources to pile together some of the major challenges faced by parents and their children in the treatment and prevention of obesity. The alarming rise in the percentage of obesity in children over the past few decades mirrors the failure of the Public Health Ministries and economic strategies aimed directly at preventing obesity amongst youngsters. For instance, the events following the suggestion of taxation on high fat foods by Brownell in 1998 portrays the lack of government interests in promoting health issues. Brownell was accused of being a â€Å"food fascist† and he was awarded with a â€Å"Nanny of the Year† title

2010 Mid-term elections Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

2010 Mid- elections - Term Paper Example In this structural context, mid-term elections can also change the dynamics of Congressional support enjoyed by a President for his or her legislative agenda. In 2010, the mid-term elections were a referendum on President Obama’s policies during the first two years of his administration. Standing for re-election on the President’s response to the economic problems of 2008-9, including the â€Å"Wall St. Bailout,† the economic stimulus package, health care reform, and the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, the Democrats lost control of the House of Representatives nationally and saw their majority in the Senate eroded by Republican gains. No third-party candidates made an impact in the 2010 mid-term elections; however the election did feature the participation of the â€Å"Tea Party† as symbolic of voter frustration over taxation and corruption in Washington. To summarize the electoral trends in the 2010 mid-term elections, the election can be generalized as representing popular opposition to President Obama’s management of the White House both from the Left and Right. On the Left, generally representing the socially progressive, activist wing of the Democratic party, third-party leaning voters, and independents who organized and voted for Obama in 2008, there was a general sense of disappointment in the first two years of the administration. Many from Obama’s own party developed doubts about his leadership. Many of the objections were related to the policies of Rahm Emanuel, Obama’s Chief of Staff, who largely governed in a manner consistent with the Clinton administration, but which illustrated Emanuel’s own close contacts with the banking sector. Popular association of the Obama administration favoring banking interests over â€Å"real† or â€Å"common† people was established in the Wall St. B ailout response, which essentially gave trillions of dollars from the public treasury to the richest

Technique to Facilitate Treatment of Urethral Strictures

Technique to Facilitate Treatment of Urethral Strictures Title:  A simple technique to facilitate treatment of urethral strictures with optical internal urethrotomy Konstantinos Stamatiou MD,PhD,Consultant Urologist, Urology Dpt, General Hospital Tzanio, Piraeus, Greece Aggeliki Papadatou MD, Radiology Resident, Radiology Interventional Radiology Dpt, General Hospital Tzanio, Piraeus, Greece Hippocrates Moschouris MD, Consultant Radiologist, Radiology Interventional Radiology Dpt, General Hospital Tzanio, Piraeus, Greece Corresponding author: Aggeliki Papadatou, General Hospital Tzanio, Zanni Afentouli 1 str, 18536, Piraeus, Greece Key words: urethral stricture, optical internal urethrotomy Introduction An urethral stricture is a narrowing of a section of the urethra. It causes a blocked or reduced flow of urine which can result in a range of manifestations, from asymptomatic to severe discomfort. Moreover, it can lead to serious complications such as urinary infections and renal insufficiency secondary to urinary retention. Blunt perineal trauma, urological instrumentation, chronic inflammatory disorders such as lichen sclerosus et atrophicus and sexually transmitted diseases are the most frequent causes of strictures; a large proportion are iatrogenic . Currently, three different interventions are used to treat urethral strictures: dilations, optical internal urethrotomy and open urethroplasty(1). Dilations are easy to perform in every day clinical practice, however they show the highest recurrence rates while their outcomes are the less satisfying to the patients. On the other hand, open urethroplasty shows the lowest recurrence rates and its outcomes are the most satisfying to the patients (2). Although it is the current gold standard against which the traditional treatments are compared, this technique requires skills, expertise and equipment, often not available in the resource limited settings. For the above reasons, most patients with urethral stricture are offered optical internal urethrotomy . This procedure is preferred as the first treatment option by many urologists, as it is performed within short operative times, under either spinal, or local anaesthesia. It can be also done as an outpatient procedure for the treatment of short urethral strictures . Optical internal urethrotomy is performed by a rigid urethrotome or a flexible cystoscope/urethrotome combination. The instrument is inserted and guided to the face of the stricture and a small blade at the tip of the instrument is deployed using a trigger mechanism to cut the stricture at locations determined by the surgeon. Upon completion of the internal incision(s), the instrument is withdrawn and an appropriately sized Foley catheter is inserted through the repair and into the urinary bladder. Hospitalization lasts 2 days and the patient keeps the catheter a few days . However, technical difficulties associated with poor visualization of the stenosis or of the urethral lumen may increase procedural time and substantially increase the failure rates of internal urethrotomy. In this report we describe a technique for urethral catheterization via a suprapubic, percutaneous approach through the urinary bladder. Case Report A 35-year-old male patient, presented to our urology department with a severe (> 5 cm), tortuous stricture of the penile urethra, previously diagnosed by descending cystourethrogram (Figure 1). A suprapubic catheter was in place. Technique The urinary bladder was filled with 300 millilitres of diluted iodinated contrast (contrast/normal saline: 1/3) via the suprapubic catheter. A 0035†, J-tip standard angiographic guidewire was inserted into the urinary bladder through the suprapubic catheter. The latter was removed and exchanged with a short (11 cm), 5-French angiographic sheath. The angiographic guidewire was subsequently withdrawn and a Cobra-1 angiographic catheter (5 Fr, 65 cm) loaded with a 0035, hydrophilic, J-tip guide-wire was inserted into the bladder. Under fluoroscopy, the catheter-guidewire combination was guided towards the internal urethral orifice and urethra was catheterized. The hydrophilic guidewire was used to negotiate the stricture and was finally advanced through the external urethral orifice (Figure 2). The angiographic catheter was subsequently advanced through the stenosis, over the guidewire (Figure 3). The hub of the catheter was cut off and the vascular sheath was removed. The posteri or part of the catheter is stabilized on the abdominal wall with a suture. The patient was then taken to the operating room and placed in lithotomy position, under spinal anaesthesia. By keeping the angiographic catheter stretched, the rigid urethrotome was inserted in the urethra (Figure 4) and directed to the face of the stricture. The blade at the tip of the instrument was deployed using a trigger mechanism to cut the stricture at the 12 o clock location along the entire length of the stenosis. Upon completion of the internal incision, the instrument was withdrawn and a Foley catheter was inserted through the repaired stricture and into the urinary bladder. Results Antegrade catheterization of the urethral stricture and subsequent treatment of the stricture by using the angiographic catheter as a guide for the urethrotome proved feasible. No urethral injury, false passage or development of fistula were observed. The fluoroscopically guided antegrade catheterization of the stricture lasted 11 minutes. The patient remains free of recurrence 7 months post-operation. Discussion Internal urethrotomy has advantages of ease, simplicity, speed and short convalescence. However, success rates vary and long term results are generally low. In the short-term (less than 6 months), success rates are 70 to 80 percent. After one year, however, recurrence rates approach 50 to 60 percent and by five years, recurrence falls in the range of 74 to 86 percent(4). Although different studies have proposed different etiologies as poor responders to optical internal urethrotomy, technical and anatomical factors such as reduced visibility during the operation and stricture length are uniformly recognised as predictors of recurrence . Other factors associated with treatment failure are the perioperative urinary infection, the presence of periurethral fibrosis (spongiofibrosis) and stricture etiology(5). In cases of severe urethral stenosis or excessive urethral tortuosity the actual site of the stricture may not be visible at all4. Intraprocedural bleeding, presence of blood clots, inflammatory or injured tissues add extra difficulty in localization of the stenosis and in safe advancement of the urethrotome. Retrograde instillation of methylene blue through the suprapubic catheter and/or antegrade advancement forwarding of an ureteral stent are usually used in order to visualise narrowed urethral lumen, or to guide the urethrotome through a tortuous urethra respectively. However both manoeuvres are of questionable effectiveness. In several cases the procedure is concluded in two sessions; in other cases a scar appears after urethrotomy (probably as a result of a false route of the urethrotome) and this causes a new stricture. The above may explain surgical success rates as low as 20% . To overcome these problems, we devised a technique which is based on percutaneous, trans-cystic catheterization of the urethra. The technique requires low-cost, widely available materials of interventional radiology and a fluoroscopy unit. The procedure is brief, well-tolerated and requires no anesthesia. Our initial experience showed that even a long and severe stenosis could be negotiated with rotational and gentle probing movements of the hydrophilic guidewire. Of note, we preferred to utilize the angiographic catheter instead of the guidewire as a guide for the urethrotome; compared to the guidewire, the angiographic catheter proved more stable, more efficient for straightening of the urethra and more easily visible endoscopically. References 1. Tritschler S, Roosen A, Fà ¼llhase C, Stief CG, Rà ¼bben H. Urethral stricture: etiology, investigation and treatments. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2013;110:220-6 2. Wani BN, Jajoo SN, Bhole AM. Outcome of urethral strictures managed by general surgeons in a rural setting of India. Indian J Surg. 2011;73:336-40. 3. Kreder KJ, Stack R, Thrasher JB, Donatucci CF. Direct vision internal urethrotomy using topical anesthesia. Urology. 1993;42:548-50. 4. Jordan GH, Schlossberg SM, Devine CJ. Surgery of the penis and urethra. In: Walsh PC, Vaughan ED, Retik AB, Wein AJ, editors. Campbells Urology. Philadelphia: Saunders; 1998. pp. 3316–3394. 5. Wong SS, Aboumarzouk OM, Narahari R, ORiordan A, Pickard R. Simple urethral dilatation, endoscopic urethrotomy, and urethroplasty for urethral stricture disease in adult men. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;12:CD006934. Legends Figure 1 Descending cystourethrogram showing severe stenosis of the penile urethra (arrow). Figure 2 Demonstration of the technique after the replacement of the suprapubic catheter with the angiographic sheath (arrow). The angiographic catheter (dotted arrow) and the guidewire (arrowhead) have been inserted through the angiographic sheath into the bladder. The guidewire has negotiated the stenosis and has been externalized through the external urethral orifice. Figure 3 The angiographic catheter (dotted arrow) has been advanced across the stenosis over the guidewire. Figure 4 Endoscopic view of the angiographic catheter which served as a guide for the urethrotome.

Difficulities in the Play A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry Ess

Difficulities in the Play A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry In the four years between 1861 and 1865 this country was in civil war over the rights and freedom of blacks in America. When all was said and done, the blacks won their freedom and gained several rights that would make their lives better. Nearly one hundred years later, in 1959, Lorraine Hansberry wrote her great play, A Raisin in the Sun. It described the everyday life of a black family in the Southside of Chicago sometime after World War II. Throughout the play, Hansberry talks of the difficulties that the Younger family faces trying to get from one day to another; the problems that should have been resolved by the Civil War. Even after the Civil War and this play, many of these problems still exist today. The first difficulty that the Younger family faces is poor housing. The play starts off in a small two bedroom apartment with Ruth waking up her son, Travis, who sleeps on the couch in the living room. He sleeps on the couch because one bedroom is used by Ruth and Walter and the other by Mama and Beneatha. Every morning they wake up early so they can get to the one bathroom that is shared by all of the other families that live in the complex. When Mama talks about putting a down payment on a new house, Ruth says, ?Well, Lord knows, we?ve put enough rent into this here rat trap to pay for four houses by now? (p. 1817). When she says rat trap you would naturally think of some of the houses today with boarded up or broken windows, unattended yards, and streets that are covered with potholes. But in the movie, it is nothing like that. The movie depicts the apartment in a very livable way. You can say they made the best of a bad situation. T... ... over this and it was decided by the Civil War the blacks should have their freedom as ?full? American citizens. When will we be able to live as one community? ?The history must be taught, and if not in schools then at home. But that won?t or can?t be done until our home life, our families, get back on track. Its a vicious cycle. We still have a long, long way to go.? (Lee p. xivii) Bibliography: Hansberry, Lorraine. A Raisin in the Sun. Norton Introduction to Literature: 7th edition. Ed. Jerome Beaty, et al. New York: Norton, 1998. Lee, Spike. ?Commentary: Thoughts on the Screenplay.? A Raisin in the Sun: Original Screenplay. London: Penguin, 1992 Wilkerson, Margaret. ?Introduction.? A Raisin in the Sun: Original Screenplay. London: Penguin, 1992 X, Malcolm. The Autobiography of Malcolm X: As told to Alex Haley. New York: Ballantine Books, 1992